CiCe: Children’s Identity and Citizenship in Europe

The Thematic Network’s activities in the area of migration and mobility in Europe

Alistair Ross, Thematic Network Coordinator

Who we are and what we do

Our thematic network is called CiCe – ‘Children’s Identity and Citizenship in Europe’ - and we believe that the work in which we are engaged is central to the concerns of the Archipelago meeting on Migration and Mobility in European Culture, Society band Citizenship. Our thematic network is concerned with the higher education of those professionals who will work with children and young people, particularly in the area of citizenship education and the development of social identity. These professionals will be our future teachers, social pedagogues, early childhood workers and developmental psychologists, all of whom are concerned with how young people learn about and construct their identities and develop social and political understanding – citizenship in its broadest context. Our thematic network members therefore come from departments that educate teachers, social workers, early childhood staff and youth workers. The students now passing through our departments will be working with children and young people on issues of identity, or understanding their society, of active citizenship, for the next forty years. Changes in the population of our society, and changes in the possibilities of civic identity and participation, are critical for our thematic network, and we have given a great deal of attention to these issues.

Non-educators might think at first that issues such as identity, belonging and citizenship are developed in adult life, not in childhood. It might be the business of the upper secondary school, or the university – but of younger children? One of our earliest activities was to survey the teacher educators and developmental psychologists about the ages when they thought that children first developed particular senses of identity. The consensus that we found was that children say themselves as a member of

A family by about 2.4 years

In a gender group, male or female, by 2.9 years

Identification as a member of a local area by 7 years

As belonging to a country or nation by 7.5 years

As belonging to a region within that country by 8.6 years

As being a member of a particular social class at 8.8 years, and

As being a ‘European’ at 11.4 years.

Identity in contemporary Europe

Children and young people are aware of their society and social groupings from an early age. Note how some of these identities relate: many of them nest, one within the other: membership of one group does not preclude simultaneously being a member of another. Identities that were perhaps once in history simple and unchanging ascriptions now become multiple, complex and overlapping. "The concept of diaspora disrupts and unsettles our hitherto settled conceptions of culture, place and identity" (Hall 1995:207). Identification with a group is also contingent – who we say we are depends on who asks us, where, when, and in what context. Children and young people learn what these categories mean, and select which groups to identify with, from the society around them. They will elect to define themselves by gender, ethnicity, linguistic competence, nationality and religious affiliation with different emphases at different times.

Saying who you are is, of course, also saying who you are not. These groups are defined always against the other. Canadians are well known for defining themselves as not being Americans. So creating an identity is part of a process of othering, and this brings with it certain dangers, particularly in a context where there are many possibilities of being ‘the other’. Europe has a particular and dangerous history in this respect, so it is important that we ensure our young people develop a strong understanding and valuing of the increasing diversity in our society, and that – this time – we get it right, so that all members of our societies can recognise and accept, but welcome diversity.

The concept of ‘the other’, particularly for Europe, comes to us from the ancient Greeks. Barbarian, barbarizmo, was any language spoken by non-Greeks – which sounded, to the Greek ear, as baa-baa.

So who we are depends on who is not us: our identity, and in a broad non-legal sense, our citizenship are contingent and situational – identity and citizenship depend on the interaction between our own experiences and on the time, the location and setting in which the question is posed, and on the context – who ‘else’ there is in the equation. Identities have always had a fluidity about them, and this tendency has increased in recent centuries and decades. Europe’s history of cultural contacts with non-Europeans has not always been happy. European states, nations and empires have been involved with the rest of world in various ways long over history: Europe invented globalisation when it produced the most sustained, and most exploitative, contact with other parts of the world, and made these parts relate to Europe, on Europe’s terms. Europe today is defined by more than lines on the map. In the words of a contemporary historian, ‘In an age of demographic transition and resettlement, today’s Europeans are more numerous and heterogeneous than ever before’ (Judt, 2005, p 752). Europe is a fluid concept, and its boundaries consist of the mind, rather than lines on the ground.

Identity and ethnicity in Europe

The effect of Europe globalising the world has led to not just a set of racialised attitudes, but also to the movement of peoples of the world into Europe, mirroring the movement of Europeans into the world. New Europeans have not generally been well-treated. Generations of white populations, brought up on a diet of racial stereotyping, did not always see that their own increasing prosperity was partially based on the work of the newcomers. But evidence of racial discrimination jarred with the post-1945 ethos of common rights. The economic boom of those years would have been impossible without ‘the steady flow of docile, low-cost workers’ (Judt, 2005), so legislation to outlaw discrimination and to penalise race hatred was slowly introduced. Migrant workers remained, retired, became grandparents, and their children and grandchildren had no desire to ‘return’ to a country and culture they barely knew. The population of Europe is changing – but merely changing again. For centuries Europe has been a continent of migration, and what happened in the post war period was not new, only recent. The European human rights agenda has also created the conditions for these new Europeans to assert their rights as citizens.

In our Network we believe that Europe has a particular role to play in the understanding and accepting of diversity, and indeed has a particular advantage. Europe offers an alternative and broader identity than the identities of the nation-state. Citizens of the countries of the union are also citizens of the Union, and this identity may sometimes be more emphasised and prominent. Europe also offers a unique opportunity in terms of a supra-national authority with interest in – and the power to enforce – a human rights agenda. We have the opportunity of a society that is not an homogenising melting pot, a globalised mish-mash, but one that rejoices in local distinctions, that makes a virtue of the variety, but which unites in a common respect and maintenance of the civil rights of all its members.

Identities in such a context are inevitably multiple and contingent: they are also constructed afresh by each generation. They are not simply transmitted as a form of cultural capital - they are constructed, not simply culturally transmitted by education social reproduction - actively making own identities

The implications for educational policies

What does this mean for education, and specifically citizenship education?

Children and young people need to understand that they – and everyone else – is likely to have a diverse and complex set of identities, multifaceted, nesting and multiple, that they will operate contingently, and that derive from the interaction between individual experiences and the social groups that they come into operation with. They will need to recognise, in parallel to this, the very great diversity of Europeans: not to simply tolerate or accept this, but to celebrate Europe’s diversity

Children and young people will need to recognise, understand – and be proud of -a clear set of human rights values, and to insist that we all uphold these – and that these include the recognition of the rights of women, minorities, and the diverse linguistic and ethnic communities of Europe, new and old.

What CiCe has done in this area

In CiCe a considerable part of our activities have focussed on the nature of heterogeneous societies, and the implications for social learning. Over the past eight years we have discussed this at our annual conferences: the appendix lists over seventy papers on this topic that are relevant (all of which are available on-line).

We have also established a number of working groups on related topics. Three of these have produced Guidelines (listed in the appendix), on Teaching controversial issues: a European perspective, Identity in multicultural and multilingual contexts and Equal Opportunities at school: Mission impossible?.

Another set of working groups examined the design of higher education courses, following the Bologna process and Tuning principles. As part of this they specifically examined how courses in HE might refer to the various elements of Europe’s diverse societies, and what specific skills and understandings needed to be developed. These four Guidelines are also listed in the Appendix.

At the undergraduate (first cycle) level, one of the five common areas that was found in most citizenship education courses was ‘the promotion of social, cultural and political inclusiveness’. Our report also noted that in the initial Tuning analysis of competences, three competencies were rated particularly lowly by students. Lecturers and employers, relating to understanding other cultures, appreciating diversity and working in an international context: this will be referred to in more detail below.

At the second cycle level, we reported on a Joint Masters programme that our members had developed, with support from an Erasmus CD award. In this, we identified 5 generic and 9 specific competences, which included:

Generic Competences:

understand and appreciate diverse customs and cultures

Specific Competences:

communicate effectively and with sensitivity (with children, young people and professionals) in multicultural (educational or learning) contexts.

acquire skills to develop children and young people’s understanding of their identity in the changing context of citizenship in Europe, recognising the contemporary diversity of cultures, languages, ethnicities, religious beliefs, political opinions and nationalities

develop and use appropriate strategies to help resolve social and interpersonal conflicts;

initiate cooperative activities with people from different backgrounds and cultures ….

identify specific appropriate professional colleagues in other countries and cultures, and communicate effectively with them to share and further professional practice;

recognise tolerance and preconceptions in their own and others behaviour and attitudes, and be able to develop strategies to promote greater acceptance and understanding; ….

Our third cycle (research degree) working party also identified particular essential competences that had to be developed relating to sensitivity and awareness of the diverse nature of identities and citizenship, and the ability to relate research and theory in a cross-cultural and cross-national manner. There was a particular emphasis on the need to research areas of ethnicity and identity with particular sensitivity, and to consider a range of ethical implications that might arise in such research.

What CiCe is currently working on in this area

We are currently (July 2006) at an early stage of our new cycle of work. We have in this in one respect extended our initial brief to examine all university students, and their understanding of citizenship in a diverse Europe.

We have established a new working group to look specifically at the three competences that were rated low in the Tuning exercise. These were

an understanding of cultures and customs of other countries;

an appreciation of diversity and multi-culturality; and

an ability to work in an international context, leadership, research skills, project design and a knowledge of a second language (Tuning, 2002, p17).

Over the next 27 months our group will work with four other thematic networks to examine how these competences might be given more importance and achieve a higher profile. We will be working with networks representing the sciences, the humanities, the social sciences and the professions:

Representing the scientific thematic networks, we are working with ECTN3, the Chemistry Thematic Network

Representing the humanities, we are working with Cliohnet, the History Thematic network

From the social sciences, Phoenix – the health and social welfare policy Thematic network

Representing the newer thematic networks, we will be working thit TRES - Theology and Religious Studies Network

We are asking members of these networks for examples of good practice, and discussing possible approaches with them. From this work, we hope to be able to make some more generalised recommendations and suggestions.

Conclusions

Education is changing to meet the new conditions and demography of Europe. In CiCe we have been examining what these exchanges need to be, and how they will impact on all our children, old European and new European. We suggest three major areas of change – the curriculum, the teaching and learning styles, and the professional workforce.

We need a new sense of our history: a recognition of the different ways that peoples have come to where they now are, including the role that our ancestors played in shaping the distribution of the global population.

Schools and other social institutions will have a key part to play in meeting these needs: education will help children build their identities, and schools and teachers need to recognise this as a matter of choice. Schools and other centres for young people have a role in helping pupils understand this new conception of Europeanness, and the importance of individual contingent choice is assuming identities. They will also need to play a role in the establishment and promotion of human rights – both in how these rights must be promoted and respected, and in demonstrating what they mean through schools own practices. Schools and institutions need to promote how these rights are greater than national rights – they should be universal human rights, that are already in practice European rights.

These are challenges for the school curriculum. The Curriculum is not there to transmit remembered histories of ‘us’ and ‘others’ in the past, but to understand our role in diversities today. These are the concerns of those who educate teachers today.

But this group also have a further responsibility: who will be the teachers, youth leaders, early childhood workers and social psychologists of tomorrow. We must ensure that these professionals represent all the diverse parts of our society – there should be new Europeans in our teaching workforce as a matter of course. This is not because minority ethnic professionals are needed to teach minority ethnic children: far from it. Their role is to work with all our children, because all our children must see that teachers and other professionals – society’s authority figures for children – are representative of the diversity of our societies.

Appendix: CiCe publications relevant to this area

Most of these are available on the World Wide Web at our site at http://cice.londonmet.ac.uk/: follow the links for Publications and Resources

3 Booklets published by working groups in the CiCe Guidelines Series (London: CiCe Publications)

1 Teaching controversial issues: a European perspective Berg, W., Graeffe, L. and Holden, C. (2003)

4 Identity in multicultural and multilingual contexts Leena Lestinen, Jelena Petrucijova and Julia Spinthurakis (2004)

Equal Opportunities at school: Mission impossible? Mary Koutselini, Florbela Trigo-Santos and Hugo Verkest (2004)

4 Booklets published by working groups in the CiCe Guidelines on the Design of Higher Education Course Series (London: CiCe Publications)

1 Citizenship Education in First Cycle Undergraduate Teacher Education Courses Danciu, M. Clarke, M. and Elm, A. (2005)

2 A joint European maters Degree in Citizenship Education: a model of implementing a Joint European Masters within the Bologna Process. Ross, A. (2005)

Research Degrees that relate to Citizenship and Identity Ross, A., Virta, A. and Holligan, C. (2005)

Professional in-service Courses that relate to Citizenship education and Identity Foster, R., Graeffe, L. and Zuzeviciute, V. (2005)

75 Papers published by CiCe in its conference proceedings on migration and education

1999 Young Citizens in Europe (edited Ross, A.) London: CiCe Publications

Euan Reid; Language Education for Multilingual Societies 

Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, Beata, Topczewska, Ewa and Derkowska Malgorzata: Children's tolerance for different cultures: an educational perspective - a pilot study 

2000 Developing Identities in Europe (edited Ross, A.) London: CiCe Publications

Gocsál, Ákos: Hungarian students' perceptions of the Roma minority 

Kantorkova, Hana and Sikorova, Eva with Karaffa, Jan: Integrating topics of citizenship and multicultural values into the curriculum of teacher education

Kolenc-Kolnik, Karmen: The influence of geographical education on multicultural understanding and national identity

2001 Learning for a Democratic Europe (edited Ross, A.) London: CiCe Publications

Clarke, Marie, Killeavy, Maureen and Harrison, Conor: The challenge of multiculturalism for citizenship education in Irish post-primary schools 

Krull, Edgar Integration of Soviet migrants as a factor shaping identity and citizenship awareness in Estonia 

Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz and Malgorzata Zielinska: Promoting tolerance for other cultures at school: an example of an experimental class

Ross, Maggie: Young bilingual children's access to participation: minority languages in early childhood settings in London 

Spinthourakis, J. A.and Papoulia-Tzelepi, P.: Teacher attitudes on teaching social issues in the elementary school 

2002: Future Citizens in Europe (ed Ross, A,) London CiCe

Carroll, Pam: Citizenship in mainly white UK Schools - the marginalisation of the minority ethnic voice 

Chehlova, Zoja: Cultural identity problem in contemporary pedagogy of Latvia

Furlan, Marina: Maintenance Program Schools and Children from different Ethnic Groups 

Hartsmar, Nanny: A process from accounts to reflections: working with a multicultural group of 72 teacher students

Kjaerulff, Helle: Meeting the other Culture 

Kolenc Kolnik, Karmen: Minority rights in the educational system of the Republic of Slovenia: based upon an example of geographical education 

Kovalcikova, Iveta, Kresila, Juraj and Petrasova,Alica: Building culture in the classroom: the role of Romany assistants in the Romany classroom 

Lukasova-Kantorkova, Hana, Rozsypalova, Martina and Sigutova, Marta: An Analysis of primary school children's attitudes to citizenship and implications for teacher education 

Petrucijová, Jelena: Cultural and civic identities in the context of civic education 

Villanueva, Maria and Gonzalo, Carmen: What maps don't say: Deconstructing the political map of Europe with student teachers. 

2003 A Europe of Many Cultures (ed Ross, A.) London: CiCe Publications

Adalbjarnardóttir & Rúnarsdóttir: Educational aims in a changing society: equal opportunities in citizenship, culture, and identity 

Alexandre & Monteiro: Roma children: the impact of cognitive-emotional variables and of single and multiple identities in acculturation attitudes toward Portuguese society 

Alonqueo & del Barrio: The incidence and meaning of peer bullying in a multi-ethnic school.

Berg, W: Identity Policy 

Chelova: Multicultural education in Latvia: developing openness to cultural differences 

Christensen & Rasmussen: Citizenship among young Serbs and Albanians in Kosovo? 

Figueiral & Gómez-Chacón: Education in mathematics in a Europe of different cultures 

Hartsmar, N: She told me to develop my reflections? 

Hoyos et al: The meaning of national identity amongst Spanish and Colombian children and adolescents 

Ivrideli et al: European integration, multiculturalism and primary education in Greece 

Kjaerulff, H, Scheel Nielsen, and K.,Froda: The course for educators in social integration for migrants and refugees (FIF) at the Slagelse Institute of Social Education 

Krull: Integration of Soviet migrants as a factor shaping identity and citizenship in Estonia 

Liduma, A: Music as a means for integration into a multicultural society 

Nielsen, Kirsten Scheel and Froda, Jesper: The double profit of an ethnic meeting between Danish and foreign cultures in an extraordinary Danish kindergarten 

Papoulia-Tzelepi et al: Attitudes of Greek children toward immigrant children 

Petrucijová & Meciar: Cultural citizenship in the context of the EU 

Spinthourakis & Katsillis Multiculturalism and teacher preparedness to deal with the new reality

Tatkovic et al: Multicultural education in the Italian minority in the Croatian region of Istria 

Vacek & Lasek: Attitudes of Romany/non-Romany adolescents towards citizenship 

Villanueva & Gonzalo: Migrations and cultural change in the school 

2004 The Experience of Citizenship (ed Ross, A.) London: CiCe Publications

Berg, Wolfgang: Citizenship à la carte. A new paradigm of immigration policy? Facts and figures 

Chehlova, Z., Gode, I. and Sokolova M. Chehlov: Citizenship Education in Latvia 

Nikolaou, G. and. Spinthourakis, J.A.: Citizenship education curriculum, teaching methods, attitudes and newcomers: a need for change? 

Hegstrup, Søren: How to welcome children with an Islamic background in Denmark - are they offered citizenship education? 

Issa, Tözün: Multicultural Education in 21st century Britain 

Jurgena, Inese: Possibilities for the Development of Citizenship Identity 

Kovalcíková, Iveta and Kresila, Juraj: Improving conditions for Roma self-realization 

Lestinen, Leena, Petrucijova, Jelena and Spinthourakis, Julia: Identity in multicultural and multilingual contexts 

Petrucijova, Jelena: Civic Education and Non-Citizens. Experience of the Czech Educational System 

Vacek, Pavel and Lasek, Jan: The comparison of attitudes and opinions of adolescents from Czech majority and Romany minority 

2005 Teaching Citizenship (ed Ross, A,) London: CiCe Publications

Adalbjarndottir, S., Runarsdottir, E and Ingvarsdottir, I.: National Policy and Practitioner Practice in Multicultural Education in Iceland

Alhelsi, A.: Challenges facing citizenship education in (post) conflict areas: a comparison between Northern Ireland and Palestine

Berg, W.: Cross-cultural learning and managing diversity

Chelova, Z. and Popova, I.: Education for citizenship in the multicultural society of Latvia

Dooley, M. and Villanueva, M.: Intercultural communication skills and students’ attitudes: transnational projects as an instrument in citizenship education

Duffy, J.: Pluralism in divided societies – citizenship education and social work in Northern Ireland

Etienne, R.: The unique class in the urban school: a device for the integration of citizenship education in everyday teaching

Folkeson, A-M and Hartsmar, N.: Negotiating identity and citizenship in teacher education

Fons, J-P., Leydier, G. and Bozec, G.: Teacher Education and Multiculturalism in Europe: National Policy and Practitioner Practice in Multicultural Education in France

Fumat, Y., and Rondot, M.: The debate on secularism in France and its implications for education towards citizenship

Goulas, E., and Spinthourakis, J.: The role of ‘us’ and ‘them’ as reflected in teachers’ celebratory speeches on national holidays

Ingvarsdottir, I., Runarsdottir, E and Adalbjarnardottir, S.: Teaching new citizens: challenges and opportunities

Issa, T.: Citizenship Education and the multicultural dimension: strategies for the secondary classroom

Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, B, Wolodzko, E. and Strzemecka-Kata, J.: Minorities in Poland

Lesar, I.: Attitudes of Slovenian teachers towards Romany children

Lundgren: U.: The Intercultural Teacher

Maylor, U., Ross, A. and Hutchings, M.: National Policy and Practitioner Practice in Multicultural Education in the UK

Mazurkiewicz, G.: Inequality and teachers’ beliefs: the reality of equal opportunities in Polish schools

Misiejuk, K. and Sobecki, M.: Transmission of cultural heritage on the Polish and Belorussioan borderland

Moustrairas, P. and Spinthourakis, J.: Does intercultural education as a medium of citizenship education lead to student integration?

Pecek Cuk, M.: Is the xenophobia of Slovenian society reflected in teachers’ attitudes towards migrant and Romany students?

Pettigrew, A.: ‘Culture, Citizenship and Curriculum’: early understandings from British secondary schools

Rone, S.: The pedagogic aspect of multicultural civic integration in Latvia

Spinthourakis, J., Papooulia-Tzelepi, P., Stavlioti-Karatzia, E. and Karras, J.: National Policy and Practitioner Practice in Multicultural Education in Greece

Stoik: O.: Similarity and Diversity in Europe

12 Chapters in our series European Issues in Children’s Identity and Citizenship (published by Trentham Press, UK)

Archer, L. (2005) ‘Muslim adolescents in Europe’. in Fulop, M. and Ross, A. (eds) Growing up in Europe today: Developing identities among adolescents. Stoke on Trent; Trentham Books

Dekker, H. (2004) ‘National and ethnic prejudices and their origins’. in Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, B. and Ross, A. (eds) Social learning, inclusiveness and exclusiveness in Europe. Stoke on Trent; Trentham Press Trentham Books 2004 

Dinvault, A-M. (2005) ‘Rhymes and citizenship: Intercultural tools for the kindergarten’. in Papoulia-Tzelepi, Hegstrup, S. and Ross, A. (eds) Emerging Identities among young children; European issues. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Press

Francis, B. (2005) ‘The identities of youths of Chinese origin: the case of the British-Chinese’. in Fulop, M. and Ross, A. (eds) Growing up in Europe today: Developing identities among adolescents. Stoke on Trent; Trentham Books

Hegstrup, S. ‘Children and Social Identity’. in Papoulia-Tzelepi, Hegstrup, S. and Ross, A. (eds) Emerging Identities among young children; European issues. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Press

Kallis, A. (2003) ‘Ethnocentric narratives and the ‘European Dimension’ in historical education’. in Roland-Levy, R. and Ross, A. Political Learning and Citizenship in Europe. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Press

Killeavy, M. (2003) ‘The social and political learning needs of refugee students and asylum seekers from third world countries in Irish post-primary schools’. in Roland-Levy, R. and Ross, A. Political Learning and Citizenship in Europe. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Press

Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, B. (2002) ‘Children’s national identity and attitudes towards other nationalities in a monocultural society: the Polish example’. in Nasman, E and Ross A (eds) Children’s Understanding in the New Europe. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Press

Navarro, A. and Enesco, I. (2005) ‘Ethnic Stereotypes and prejudice among Spanish Adolescents’. in Fulop, M. and Ross, A. (eds) Growing up in Europe today: Developing identities among adolescents. Stoke on Trent; Trentham Books

Spinthourakis, J. and Sifakis, N. (2005) ‘Children’s intercultural identity development through the teaching of languages’. in Papoulia-Tzelepi, Hegstrup, S. and Ross, A. (eds) Emerging Identities among young children; European issues. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Press

Verkest, H. (2004) ‘Who’s afraid of social learning?’ in Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, B. and Ross, A. (eds) Social learning, inclusiveness and exclusiveness in Europe. Stoke on Trent; Trentham Press

Villanueva, M. and Maiztegui (2005) ‘Multicultural states and the construction of identities: an overview of the Spanish case’. in Fulop, M. and Ross, A. (eds) Growing up in Europe today: Developing identities among adolescents. Stoke on Trent; Trentham Books